Bacteria Causes of Infections

Pneumonia:    

Inflammation of the lung, usually caused by bacteria or viruses.

Otis media:     

Inflammation of the middle ear

Endocarditis:  

Inflammation of the innermost tunic of the heart

Septicemia:    

Systemic disease caused by the spread of microorganisms and
their toxins via the circulating blood (also called "blood poisoning") 

Pathogen:             

A microorganism that causes disease.  

Virulence:The disease-evoking severity of a pathogen 

Gram Positive Cell Wall VS Gram Negative Cells

Gram Stain Features and Clinical Importance

Types of Bacteria

 A test, resulting in the classification of bacteria, developed in the last century by Hans Christian  Gram, a Danish microbiologist

• Gram positive bacteria will retain the original blue stain.

• Gram negative bacteria will lose the blue stain upon intermediate acetone treatment and will stain red
  
  
  

Antibiotics Classes,Structure and Resistance

Brand of GlaxoSmithKline

Amoxicillin or Clavulanate is the Generic Name of Augmentin a Brand of GlaxoSmithKline. 

Why is Clavulanate or Amoxicillin (Augmentin) Prescribed?

Clavulanate or Amoxicillin (Augmentin) is used in the treatment of lower respiratory, middle ear, sinus, skin, and urinary tract infections that are caused by certain specific bacteria. These bacteria produce a chemical enzyme called beta lactamase that makes some infections particularly difficult to treat.

Side Effects of Clavulanate or Amoxicillin (Augmentin)

Get emergency medical help if you have any of these signs of an allergic reaction: hives; difficulty breathing; swelling of your face, lips, tongue, or throat. Stop using this medication and call your doctor at once if you have any of these serious side effects:

•         Diarrhea that is watery or has blood in it

•          Pale or yellowed skin, dark colored urine, fever, confusion or weakness easy bruising or bleeding

•          Skin rash, bruising, severe tingling, numbness, pain, muscle weakness    agitation, confusion, unusual thoughts or behavior, seizure (convulsions)

•          Nausea, stomach pain, low fever, loss of appetite, dark urine, clay-colored    stools, jaundice (yellowing of the skin or eyes)

•         Fever, sore throat, and headache with severe blistering, peeling, or red skin  rash.

Important information about (Amoxicillin or Clavulanate) Augmentin

Do not use Augmentin if you are allergic to amoxicillin or clavulanate potassium, or if you have ever had liver problems caused by this medication. Do not use if you are allergic to any other penicillin antibiotic.

Before taking Augmentin, tell your doctor if you have liver disease (or a history of hepatitis or jaundice), kidney disease, or mononucleosis, or if you are allergic to a cephalosporin antibiotic.

If you switch from one tablet form to another (regular, chewable, or extended-release tablet), take only the new tablet form and strength prescribed for you. This medicine may not be as effective or could be harmful if you do not use the exact tablet form your doctor has prescribed. Augmentin can pass into breast milk and may harm a nursing baby. Do not use this medication without telling your doctor if you are breast-feeding a baby. Augmentin can make birth control pills less effective. Ask your doctor about using a non-hormone method of birth control (such as a condom, diaphragm, spermicide) to prevent pregnancy while taking Augmentin.

Uses of Clavulanate Potassium

Clavulanate Potassium (Augmentin) is used to treat many different infections caused by bacteria, such as sinusitis, pneumonia, ear infections, bronchitis, urinary tract infections, and infections of the skin.

What is Augmentin?

Augmentin is a penicillin antibiotic. Augmentin contains a combination of amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium. Amoxicillin is an antibiotic in a group of drugs called penicillins. Amoxicillin fights bacteria in the body.

Clavulanate potassium is a form of clavulanic acid. It is used to overcome resistance in bacteria that secrete beta-lactamase, thereby counteracting possible bacterial resistance to the amoxicillin.

Brand of GlaxoSmithKline

Amoxicillin is the generic name of Amoxil a brand of GlaxoSmithKline.

Side Effects of Amoxicillin

Side effects due to amoxicillin include diarrhea, dizziness, heartburn, insomnia, nausea, itching, vomiting, confusion, abdominal pain, easy bruising, bleeding, rash, and allergic reactions. Individuals who are allergic to antibiotics in the class of cephalosporins may also be sensitive to amoxicillin.

Information about Amoxicillin

Amoxicillin can make birth control pills less effective, which may result in pregnancy. Before taking amoxicillin, tell your doctor if you use birth control pills. Take this medication for the entire length of time prescribed by your doctor. Your symptoms may get better before the infection is completely treated. Amoxicillin will not treat a viral infection such as the common cold or flu. Do not give this medication to another person, even if they have the same symptoms you do. Penicillins are generally considered safe for use by pregnant women who are not allergic to penicillin.

What is Amoxicillin?

Amoxicillin is an antibiotic in the penicillin group of drugs. It fights bacteria in your body. Amoxicillin belongs to a class of antibiotics called Penicillins.

Amoxicillin is used to treat many different types of infections caused by bacteria, such as ear infections, bladder infections, pneumonia, gonorrhea, and E. coli or salmonella infection. Amoxicillin is also sometimes used together with another antibiotic called clarithromycin to treat stomach ulcers caused by Helicobacter pylori infection. This combination is sometimes used with a stomach acid reducer called lansoprazole.

Common Antibiotics

Beta Lactum Antibiotics: Beta Lactum Antibiotics are chemicals that contain the 4-membered Beta Lactum Ring. They are produced by the fungus molds such as Pencillium and Cephalosporium. There antibiotics inhibit the last step in the bacterium's cell wall synthesis. Beta lactum antibiotics are useful against Gram-positive bacteria. Around 300-500 people die each year from an allergy to a beta lactum antibiotic. There are several kinds of beta lactum antibiotic:

•  Natural Penicillins are produced by fermentation of the fungus Penicillium notatum chrysogenum. They include Pencillin G and Penicillin V. They will kill streptococcus, gonococcus and staphylococcus. They are usually not effective against Gram-negative rod-shaped bacteria.

• Cephalolsporins are similar to penicillins and are made from a species of Cephalosporium. They are used as penicillin substitutes, and in surgical prophylaxis.

Semisynthetic penicillins: Semisynthetic penicillins were first used in 1959. A mold produces the main part of the molecule, which is then altered chemically. These antibiotics are usually constructed to have certain advantages over natural penicillins. Sometimes, chavulanic acid is added to a synthetic penicillin to extend the life of the drug. Here are some types of semisynthetic penicillin:

• Amoxycillin and Ampicillin are useful not only on Gram-positive bacteria, but also on some Gram-negative bacteria.
• Clavulanate also called Augmentin, is prepared by adding chavulanic acid to amoxycillin. Clavulanic acid is made from Streptomyces clavuligerus.

Bacitracin Antibiotic: Bacitracin Antibiotic is an antibiotic produced by a Bacillus species. It prevents the growth of the cell wall. Because of its high toxicity, it is not systemically used. It is used in topic antibiotics, and to sterilize the bowel before surgery, since it is not absorbed by the digestive tract.

Chloramphenicol: Chloramphenicol is produced by Streptomyces venezuelae. It works by inhibiting translation during protein synthesis. It is effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It is currently produced by chemical synthesis. Chloramphenicol causes aplastic anemia in a small percentage of patients, and ever since that was discovered, chloramphenicol has been used very little in non life-threatening situitions.

Polymyxin Antibiotic: Polymyxin is an antibiotic produced by Bacillus polymyxis. It works by inhibiting cell membrane growth. It is rather toxic to humans, so is therefore usually used only as a topical antibiotic. Occasionally, it is used to treat urinary tract infections, however it must be used under close hospital supervision, for it will easily damage the kidney and other organs.

Tetracyclines Antibiotics: Tetracyclines are a family of eight antibiotics, all products of Sptromyces. Some of these can now be produced synthetically. Tetracyclines block protein synthesis on isolated ribosomes. It concentrates in certain types of ribosomes possesed only by bacteria, so it is not toxic to the animal. Because of their extremely low toxicity, they were overused in the medical community, and now there is widespread resistance to tetracyclines. However, they are still useful in treatment of some diseases, such as Lyme disease.

Macrolides Antibiotics: Macrolides are produced by Streptomyces erythreus. Their chemical structures contain large lactone rings linked through glycoside bonds with amino sugars. Macrolides are inhibitors of protein synthesis. They are effective against Gram-positive bacteria and most Gram-negative bacteria, Neissera, Legionella, and Haemophilus, but not Enterobacteriaceae.

Aminoglycosides Antibiotics: Aminoglycosides are products of Spectromyces griseus. They are protein synthesis inhibitors binding to bacterial ribosomes to prevent the initiation of protein synthesis. They can be used against a wide variety of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Aminoglycoside usage has been limited because prolonged use has been found to cause kidney damage and injury to the auditory nerves, leading to deafness. Streptomycin has its primary use for treating tuberculosis patients.

• Gentamicin is used against many strains of Grma-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa
• Kanamycin is a complex of three different antibiotics. It is effective against many gram-positive bacteria, including penicillin-resistant staphlococci, even at low concentrations.
• Tobramycin, along with gentamicin, are the principal antibiotics used for treatments against Pseudomonas infections.

Nalidixic Acid: Nalidixic Acid is a synthetic chemotheraputic agent effective against Gram-negative bacteria. It binds to DNA gyrase enzyme (topoisomerase) and inhibits DNA duplication. It is a member of a group of compounds called the quinolones. It is mainly used in the treatment of urinary tract infections, and will kill several types of Gram-negative bacteria such as E. coli, Enterobacteriaceae aerogenes, K. pneumoniae, and Proteus species, which are common causes of urinary tract infections. It is not effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Gram-positive bacteria are usually resistant.

Rifamycines: Rifamycines are produced by Streptomyces mediterranei. They inhibit transcription in eubacterial RNA polymerase. A synthetic derivative of rifamycin is:

• Rifampicin is active against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It is often used against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It has a greater effect on the bacteria that causes tuberculosis than most other antibiotics. It has replaced isoniazid as the front-line drug to treat tuberculosis, especially where isoniazid resistance is present. It is also used to meningitis, caused by Neisseria meningitidis. It can be taken orally.

Sulfonamides: Sulfonmides were introduced in 1935 by Domagk. He discovered that these chemicals could cure mice with beta-hemolytic Streptococci infections. Sulfonamides are derived from the compound sulfanilamide. They are effective against Streptococcus pneumoniae, beta-hemolytic streptococci, and E. coli. The sulfonamides are used in treatment for urinary tract infections caused by E. coli and in treatment of meningococcal meningitis.

Isoniazid (INH): Isoniazid INH is primarily used in the treatment of tuberculosis. It works by inhibiting synthesis of mycolic acid. It is usually given together with rifampicin. It prevents the growth of bacteria resistant to rifampicin.

Paraaminosalicylic acid (PAS): Paraaminosalicylic acid is a chemotheraputic agent once used as the primary agent in tuberculosis treatment. Paraaminosalicylic acid is an anti-folate. It is used only as a secondary anti-tuberculosis agent, having been replaced by ethambutol.

Ethambutol: Ethambutol is a chemotheraputic agent used in the treatment of tuberculosis, works by inhibiting the incorporation of mycolic acids into the microbacterial cell wall.

Antibiotic Potency Testing

Biologic is a leading innovator of laboratory instrumentation for the life and analytical sciences. Microbiology applications such as OMNICON Antibiotic Zone Reader-Zones of inhibition for automating antibiotic potency testing.

                          OMNICON Antibiotic Zone Reader:






          OMNI-Noculator Robotic Peni Cylinder Filler:

OMNICON Antibiotic Zone Reader: Using the OMNICON Zone Reader to perform antibiotic peotency testing, you can get fast rproducible and quantitative results while automating one of the most time-consuming tasks in your labs.

The OMNICON Antibiotic Zone Reader integrates image analysis, comparison and reporting to provide accurate antibiotic potencey results in record time. It can bio assays in USP - CFR - AOAC, European - British or Japanese Pharmacopoeia methods on 100 mm round petri dishes.

OMNICON-Noculator Robotic Peni Cylinder Filler: The OMNI-Noculator is a robotic liquid handling system designed to fill Peni Cylinders. The analyst defines the Pharmacopeia method, number of plates, selects one of several dispense patterns, and the volume to dispense into the Peni Cylinder.

Antibiotic Resistance

Antibiotic resistance is a type of drug resistance where a  microorganism has developed the ability to survive exposure to an antibiotic. Genes can be transferred between bacteria in a horizontal fashion by conjugation, transduction, or transformation. Thus a gene for antibiotic resistance which had evolved via natural selection may be shared. Evolutionary stress such as exposure to antibiotics than selects for the antibiotic resistant trait. Many antibiotic resistance genes reside on plasmids, facilitating their transfer. If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called multiresistant or, informally, a superbug.

Side Effects of Antibiotics

Although antibiotics are generally considered safe and well tolerated, they have been associated with a wide range of adverse effects. Side effects are many, varied, and can be very serious depending on the antibiotics used and the microbial organisms targeted. The safety profiles of newer medications may not be as well established as those that have been in use for many years. Adverse effects can range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions including photodermatitis and anaphylaxis.[citation needed] One of the more common side effects is diarrhea, sometimes caused by the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium difficile, which results from the antibiotic disrupting the normal balance of the intestinal flora, Such overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria may be alleviated by ingesting probiotics during a course of antibiotics.[citation needed] An antibiotic-induced disruption of the population of the bacteria normally present as constituents of the normal vaginal flora may also occur, and may lead to overgrowth of yeast species of the genus Candida in the vulvo-vaginal area. Other side effects can result from interaction with other drugs, such as elevated risk of tendon damage from administration of a quinolone antibiotic with a systemic corticosteroid.

History of Antibiotics

Many treatments for infections prior to the beginning of the twentieth century were based on medicinal folklore. Treatments for infection in ancient Chinese medicine using plants with antimicrobial properties were described over 2,500 years ago. Many other ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks used molds and plants to treat infections. The discovery of the natural antibiotics produced by microorganisms stemmed from earlier work on the observation of antibiosis between micro-organisms. Pasteur observed that "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer ‘perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics’". Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and the story of antibiotic development began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich, a German medical scientist in the late 1880s. Scientific endeavours to understand the science behind what caused these diseases, the development of synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy, the isolation of the natural antibiotics marked milestones in antibiotic development.

Originally known as antibiosis, antibiotics were drugs that had actions against bacteria. The term antibiosis, which means "against life," was introduced by the French bacteriologist Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these drugs. (Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist in 1942.

What is an Antibiotic ? Defination of Anitbiotic.

In common usage, an antibiotic (from the Ancient Greek: ντί – anti, "against", and βίος – bios, "life") is a substance or compound that kills bacteria or inhibits their growth. Antibiotics belong to the broader group of antimicrobial compounds, used to treat infections caused by microorganisms, including fungi and protozoa.

Antibiotics are molecules that kill, or stop the growth of, microorganisms, including both bacteria and fungi.

• Antibiotics that kill bacteria are called "bactericidal"

• Antibiotics that stop the growth of bacteria are called "bacteriostatic"

 The term "antibiotic" was coined by Selman Waksman in 1942 to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution. This original definition excluded naturally occurring substances that kill bacteria but are not produced by microorganisms (such as gastric juice and hydrogen peroxide) and also excluded synthetic antibacterial compounds such as the sulfonamides. Many antibiotics are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight less than 2000 Da.

Top 20 Products in 1st Quarter 2010

1. Augmentin                         
2. Amoxil
3. Velosef
4. Pegasys
5. Ponstan
6. Brufen
7. Flagyl
8. Lactogen
9. Risek
10. Meiji Milk
11. Methycobal
12. Humulin Insulin 70/30
13. Rocephin
14. Novidat
15. Ampiclox
16. Zantac
17. Betnovate N
18. Ventolin
19. Panadol
20. Oxidil

Research and development of Pharmaceutical Drugs

Drug discovery is the process by which potential drugs are discovered or designed. In the past most drugs have been discovered either by isolating the active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery. Modern biotechnology often focuses on understanding the metabolic pathways related to a disease state or pathogen, and manipulating these pathways using molecular biology or Biochemistry. A great deal of early-stage drug discovery has traditionally been carried out by universities and research institutions.

Drug development refers to activities undertaken after a compound is identified as a potential drug in order to establish its suitability as a medication. Objectives of drug development are to determine appropriate Formulation and Dosing, as well as to establish safety. Research in these areas generally includes a combination of in vitro studies, in vivo studies, and clinical trials. The amount of capital required for late stage development has made it a historical strength of the larger pharmaceutical companies. Suggested citation: Tufts Center for the Study of Drug Development, Annual Impact Report, Often, large multinational corporations exhibit vertical integration, participating in a broad range of drug discovery and development, manufacturing and quality control, marketing, sales, and distribution. Smaller organizations, on the other hand, often focus on a specific aspect such as discovering drug candidates or developing formulations. Often, collaborative agreements between research organizations and large pharmaceutical companies are formed to explore the potential of new drug substances.

History of Pharmaceutical Drug

The earliest drugstores date back to the Middle Ages. The first known drugstore was opened by Arabian pharmacists in Baghdad in 754, and many more soon began operating throughout the medieval Islamic world and eventually medieval Europe. By the 19th century, many of the drug stores in Europe and North America had eventually developed into larger pharmaceutical companies.

Most of today's major pharmaceutical companies were founded in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Key discoveries of the 1920s and 1930s, such as insulin and penicillin, became mass-manufactured and distributed. Switzerland, Germany and Italy had particularly strong industries, with the UK, US, Belgium and the Netherlands following suit.

What is Pharmaceutical Drug

A pharmaceutical drug, also referred to as medicine, medication or medicament, can be loosely defined as any chemical substance intended for use in the medical diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention of disease.

What is Paharmaceutical Company

The pharmaceutical industry develops, produces, and markets drugs licensed for use as medications. Pharmaceutical companies can deal in generic and/or brand medications. They are subject to a variety of laws and regulations regarding the patenting, testing and marketing of drugs.

List of Top 20 Pharmaceutical Companies According to their Ranking in 1st quarter 2010

Following is a list of the 20 largest Pharmaceutical companies ranked here quarterly in 2010 as compare 1st quarter 2009 reports(In Pakistan).   

RANKING
1st Quarter 2009	1st  Quarter 2010	COMPANIES
1	1	GlexoSmithKline
2	2	Abbott Laboratiaries Pak Ltd.
3	3	Pfizer Inc
4	4	Novartis Pak Ltd.
5	5	Sanofi-Aventis Pak Ltd.
6	6	Getz Pharma
8	7	Sami
7	8	Roche
11	9	Searle
10	10	Hilton
9	11	Merck Private Ltd.
14	12	Bosch
13	13	Highnoon
19	14	Nestle
15	15	Bayer Pak Private Ltd.
12	16	AGP Private Ltd.
16	17	Bristol Myers Squib
18	18	Barrett Hodgson
17	19	OBS
20	20	I.C.I

The Pharmaceutical Market: Pakistan

Healthcare in Pakistan is still in the early stages of development. Widespread poverty and a weak health system underlie the poor health status of the population.